ATP biochemistry in the CNS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ATP biochemistry in the CNS - Essay Example It can be said to be a high energy molecule which is responsible for the storage of the energy required to carry out daily activities. Hence all the physiological mechanism in our body acquire energy for operation directly from Adenosine triphosphate. Cells maintain a supply of Adenosine phosphate through the oxidisation of food, as this releases energy. A remarkable ability of Adenosine triphosphate is that it may be involved in many reactions simultaneously, extracting and releasing energy at the same time. Adenosine Tri Phosphate in order to send messages and control chemical reaction is used as an on-off switch (Guyton& Hall 2000).  . Adenosine Tri phosphate induces the purinergic receptors in the brain (Matsuoka & Ohkubo, 2004). It may stimulate them directly or as a co-transmitter. This action is carried about via the P2 purinergic receptors. Adenosine Triphosphate is composed of an adenosine molecule attached to 3 phosphate groups. Adenosine itself is a purine nucleoside and has a role in not only various biochemical processes in the body but also serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter (Fredholm, Chen, Masino & Vaugeois, 2005). The formation of Adenosine triphosphate requires the addition of 3 phosphate groups to the Adenosine backbone. Adenosine is first converted into Adenosine monophosphate, then to Adenosine di phosphate and finally to Adenosine Triphosphate. ... Adenosine Tri phosphate is vital for all living cells, processes within the cell cannot use the energy stored in the bonds of a glucose molecule, and they have to rely on Adenosine triphosphate. Thus it is present in all living cells, and is particularly highly concentrated in the presynaptic terminals. This is because presynaptic terminals require a lot of energy for the maintenance of the resting membrane potential and the release of neurotransmitters (Burnstock 2013). Along with this, it is also the neurotransmitter in multiple areas of the brain. The neurotransmitter action is believed to be mediated by Adenosine Tri Phosphate as well as adenosine. And attempts to differentiate between the role of Adenosine Tri Phosphate and adenosine on post-synaptic terminals has been futile so far. Although their mechanism of action is different, they seem to have similar role in the postsynaptic cell. Adenosine Tri Phosphate acts via the P2X and P2Y receptors on the postsynaptic cell, and use s Ca++ as the second messenger. Meanwhile this Adenosine Tri Phosphate is also gradually broken down by hydrolysis to Adenosine Monophosphate and then to Adenosine by enzymes present on the surface of the plasma membrane (Dasgupta, Ferre?, Kull, Hedlund, Finnman, Ahlberg, Arenas, Fredholm, & Fuxe 1996). Ecto-alkaline phosphatase is thought to be the major enzyme in the formation of adenosine in the synaptic cleft. Adenosine then activates the A1 and A2 receptors and further augments the role of Adenosine Tri Phosphate. A1 and A2 receptors use cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate as the second messenger inside the cells and their activation leads to an increase in

Assignment 6b Scenario Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Assignment 6b Scenario - Essay Example This approach is generally favorable to a manufacturing division but not for a retail division. The second approach is the negotiated price approach. In this approach, a manufacturing division and a retail division both negotiate a price. The price of a product is set so that all of the variable costs of the manufacturer are covered and the price is lower than the market price, but the manufacturer still makes a profit. This method is commonly used when a manufacturing division has unsold inventory, as it can still sell products by using this method. This method is also more favorable to the retailer than the market price approach. The final approach is the cost price approach. In this method, a product is sold to the retail division at its standard cost or its actual cost. This price may even not be enough to cover all of the expenses of the manufacturing division. This method is the most profitable for the retail division, and it is unlikely to be supported by anyone in charge of manufacturing unless there is low demand for the manufacturer’s product or a massive amount of excess capacity at the manufacturer’s facility. There are several reasons why market price approach is the transfer pricing approach that should be used for Pharmafin’s new modules. One of the modules will be produced internally, and to produce it, the company’s production facilities will need to add new equipment. Production staffing also needs to be increased by ten percent. These large expenditures will make it necessary to use the pricing method that causes the company to receive the highest price so that it can cover the new expenditures. The marketing department shows that there is a high level of consumer demand for the new machinery. Because of this, the new machinery should sell even if it is sold at a higher price. The other two pricing approaches could lead to a lower price, but they might also lead to revenues that are inadequate to cover

History of the English Language in India

History of the English Language in India INTRODUCTION This study aims at studying the language needs of under graduates students, revealing the discrepancies of different participants with respect to actual English language skills and target language skills and then suggest corrections in curriculum, wherever required. The study is conducted at Sant Gadge Baba University; Amravati, on students studying in under-graduate courses.This chapter presents information on the background and purpose of the study. Next, research questions are presented. Finally, definitions of some basic terms used in this study are presented. Background to the Study Global English World English is broadly categorised into three varieties: English as a Native Language (ENL), English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Accordingly, there are three geographical divisions of English speaking nations viz., ENL territories, ESL territories and EFL territories (Braj B. Kachru in Koul N. Omkar (eds.) 1992: 2 -3, cited in Hasan Kamrul Md,2004).1 ENL territories In countries like the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, English is the first or often the only language of communication among the people. In ENL territories people use the mother tongue variety of English. ESL territories- In ESL situations English plays a vital role and is used to perform a variety of official, educational, and other roles. For ESL speakers, although English is not their native language but it is an important language in their professional and social lives. Like India, English is used as a second language in almost all the former British colonies (Singapore, Nigeria, South Africa etc.) Often the persons second language becomes the first functional language in adulthood in such cases. In ESL countries English is generally given importance in the educational framework of the nation and taught in schools and colleges. EFL territories In some countries English neither enjoys the status of native language nor second language. It is treated as foreign language and its use is restricted to occupational and educational purposes. In countries like China and Japan, English is taught and learnt mainly for reasons of trade and business and it does not play any role in social interactions. A historical sketch of ELT in India: Pre-colonial period Vasco da Gamas discovery of the sea route to India also paved way for the introduction of English in the sub-continent in 1498.However, it was only in the 18th century, when the Mughal Empire was on the decline and the English East India Company had secured a foothold in India that Indias tryst with the English language began. During this period, English was the language of communication of the elite people and was not the lingua franca of the people. Colonial period With the consolidation of the activities of the East India Company in eighteenth century, began the efforts of teaching English in the South Asian subcontinent. As far back as 1759, Christian missionaries entered India and the 1787 despatch welcomed the efforts of Rev. Swartz to establish schools for the teaching of English. Another significant effort was the publication of the first book, The Tutor, to teach English to the non-Europeans by author John Miller in 1797. This book was published in Serampore in Bengal. Thus the socio- historical stage for the role of English in education was set by the end of the 18th century. T.B. Macaulay, in the Minutes of 1835, for the first time, formally introduced the teaching of English in the South Asian subcontinent. In his Minutes he mentioned the importance and usefulness of the education that would be given to the natives through the medium of English. There were primarily two objectives of such education. The first was to create through this education a class of natives who, despite their blood and colour, would be English in culture and be able to interpret between the rulers and the subjects:à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern a class of persons, Indians in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect (quoted in Macaulay 1835, quoted in Thirumalai, 2003)2. The second was to create a demand for the European institutions. Although both the objectives were designed to serve the interest of the Masters, not of the subjects, but it provided the framework of formal English ed ucation to India which to a large extent is followed even today.. Thus by the middle of the nineteenth century the aims and objectives of teaching English were very clearly laid out For the remaining period of colonial rule there were a few landmarks in the development of English such as: The establishment of universities in Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai in 1857 and in Dhaka in 1920 Selective education and training in administration, imparted through English, the Indian University Act (1904) The Resolution on Educational Policy (1913). For the entire period of British rule four broad developments with regard to English education took place: 1600 -1800: During the early years the variety of English used was imitative and formal. It was the language of the rulers and the elite class. 1850 -1947: During the later years more varieties (from very high to very low) appeared. Indian intellectuals and freedom fighters effectively used English as tool to for political awakening and resurgence. Interaction with vernacular languages: As the use of English penetrated the different sections of the educated Indians, a new variety of English emerged. This variety of English had a very distinct Indian flavour and a number of words of vernacular origin were absorbed in English, e.g., Brahmin. Coolie, jungle, and so on. Methodology: Language studies were based on literature and grammar and the means of studies was the grammar-translation method. The spoken component of the language was not practised. The emphasis was given on correctness and complete sentence construction. English also played a critical role in Indias struggle for independence as it became the language of political awakening and resurgence. Even Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948), although a strong advocator of use of national language, used English language effectively to put forth his message to the British Government . Post colonial period Post independence, the perception of English as having an alien power base changed. Kachru notes that English now has national and international functions that are both distinct and complementary. English has thus acquired a new power base and a new elitism (Kachru 1986, p. 12 as cited in Baldridge, 2002).3 For most part of the twentieth century, it remained a language used by a select few. English primarily remained the language of law and administration. The Present State Twentieth century witnessed great advancements in science and technology and this enabled many new ways of sharing information and doing business. Indias international commercial activities led to the need for acquiring proficiency in English as an international language. Now, English was not just the language of the administrators and policy makers but also became the language of the business and professional class. In India, the English speaking population is only about 3-4%, but with Indias massive population, India is among the top three countries in the world with the highest number of English speakers. In terms of numbers of English speakers, the Indian subcontinent ranks third in the world, after the USA and UK. Most English speakers in India are second language speakers, in 1971, it was estimated that the rate of bilingualism in India was 13% and 99% of English speakers are second-language speakers (Mahapatra 1990: 7 cited in Hohenthal , 2003).4 Spolsky points out that English is the most widely spoken second language, followed by Hindi. English is more useful as a lingua franca; the usefulness of Hindi as a lingua franca is regionally limited (Spolsky 1978: 42 cited in Hohenthal , 2003)5. The small segment of the English speaking population controls domains that have professional prestige (Kachru 1986a: 8 cited in Hohenthal , 2003)). It is this small segment of Indian population that hea ds Indias economic, industrial, professional, political, and social progress. Most interactions in the above spheres of life take place in English. In the linguistically plural settings of India, English often acts as the link -language among people of different dialect. For many educated Indians English is virtually the first language. Thus in the present context English is playing a vital role in bringing together people from different regional languages for a closer exchange of social, educational and administrative network of India . It provides a linguistic tool for the administrative cohesiveness of a country (Kachru 1986a: 8). English is used in both public and personal domains and its functions extend far beyond those normally associated with an outside language, including the instrumental, the regulative, the interpersonal and the innovative, self-expressive function (Hohenthal citing Kachru 1986a: 37, 2003))6. As pointed out before, the role of English is not replacive: it overlaps with local languages in certain domains (Kandiah citing Sridhar, 1985;Shridhar and Shridhar, 1986; 1991: 273)7. English language in Indian Education System English is taught as a second language at every stage of education in all states of India and has been accepted as the main medium of instruction in higher education. English is also the state language of two states in eastern India, Meghalaya and Nagaland. In India, English has become an integral part of the curriculum almost at all levels of education. However there are various social, political and cultural factors that affect the position of English in different boards, universities and other institutions. Even the curriculum offered and evaluation tools employed are very diverse across the country. The model of English offered to the learners lacks uniformity and it is this question that continues to challenge the policy makers and education planners. While most States accord English the position of second language, some others treat is as the third language; the regional language and the national language getting precedence. as in other linguistically and culturally pluralistic societies, the position of English is determined by various political, cultural and social considerations. Kachru (1986b:20 cited in Hohenthal , 2003)8 sees primarily three questions which continue to be discussed. The first question concerns the position of English in early and in higher education. The second question is concerned with the roles of the regional language, Hindi and English. The third question deals with the model of English presented to Indian learners, and how that presentation can be made uniformly and effectively. The Government of India has primarily been concerned with the first two questions, which are directly related to language planning at both the national and state levels. There are, as yet, no acceptable answers to any of these questions (Kachru 1986b:20 cited in Hohenthal , 2003).9 1.2 Language Teaching Context at Amravati University Established on 1st May, 1983, this University geographically covers the western Vidarbha belt (i.e., five districts Amravati, Akola, Yavatmal, Buldhana and Washim) of Maharashtra State. The University, in its small span of two and a half decades, has contributed in many ways for economic, social and cultural upliftment of the society by offering quality education. The Motto of this University is Education for Salvation of Soul The University is recognised under Section 12(B) of UGC   Act. The University is also an associate member of Association of Commonwealth Universities, London (U.K.) The University has 10 faculties which includes Arts, Commerce, Sciences, Medicine, Ayurved, Education, Social Science, Law, Home Science, Engineering Technology. The University has facilities to offer post-graduate advanced education in Computer, Biotechnology, Business Management, Law degree courses in Chemical-Technology. SGB,Amravati University University has been one of the foundation universities undergoing expansion and developments in the recent years. Although the University does not have an English Department to date, English courses are offered both at undergraduate and postgraduate levels in colleges affiliated to the University. All undergraduate programs offered by SGBAU are of three years except Engineering (B.E.) Evaluation tools used in order to assess the students performance are generally written exams stated to cover the course objectives moderately rather than fully. That is because listening and speaking skills are not evaluated although practiced during the classes. The exam is generally conducted once, at the end of the academic session. The nature of the written examination paper is largely theoretical. Thus, the results of this study will be an aid to the Curriculum Development Unit of English Board of Studiesof Amravati University (SGBAU)in deciding on the needs of the students and improving the already existing program to better meet the needs of those students. 1.3 Purpose of the Study? English has penetrated all functions and all sections of society. It is a universally accepted tool for communication. It is no longer restricted to the English or Americans as a means for communication. Even within India, with its diversity of languages, English has emerged as the accepted language of communication cross culturally. It has even overtaken Hindi, which is officially the national language, as far communication among people of different native languages is concerned. Although, from time to time, various political lobbies have raised the issue of prohibiting the use of English language, however, they have so far been unsuccessful. This is primarily the result of the accommodating quality of English . Moreover, most of the world communicates in English and if India has to be a part of the Global scenario, English language can be a major bridge. Looking at English language courses in sub metroplises, the fact that glaringly stands out is that little has been done to understand the special learning needs of students here and even lesser attention has been paid to prepare them to function effectively in their workplaces and academic environment. Students hailing from townships and rural areas suffer from geographic as well as cultural disadvantages. Their distance from the metros does not bring the exposure and environment which is naturally a part of the cosmopolitan work culture. Culturally as well, most students belong to families where native language is the means of communication and even in academic institutions the medium of instruction is primarily the local dialect. The prime purpose of this study was to understand the special needs of students who belong to non-metropolitan areas and then attempt to suggest how they can be optimally trained to perform academic and professional functions efficiently. Each of the skills which may be required, reading, writing, listening and speaking may be of different value in terms of their use in a specific field. This study has been able to assess the students only in reading, writing, grammar and vocabulary. Due to a large and scattered sample, the researcher was constrained not to test the listening and speaking skills of the respondents. This study aims at collecting data about the ESP needs of undergraduate students in 2008-2009 Academic Year. By comparing the results of students in each skill and the desired competence level of the items, this study, also aims at examining whether or not there is a need for improvement in those skills. Rodgers (1969 as cited in Hutchinson and Waters,1987) in Nese Ekici,2003 expresses that developments in educational psychology has contributed to the rise of ESP by emphasising the central importance of the learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners have different needs and interests, which has an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. To get an idea about students English language skills and to see whether there was any discrepancy between their actual language skills and desired skills constituted an important dimension of the study. The foci of this study were both the target needs and learning needs for the English curriculum which is implemented during the undergraduate program. This needs assessment study will be useful in improving the already existing curriculum or designing a new needs-based curriculum and choosing more appropriate curricular elements for the undergraduate students at Amravati University Necessity for syllabus development A planned approach to the teaching-learning process can go a long way it making a course effective and relevant. However, as it is seen as something very complicated , many a times the content of the text books available for the course take the place of the syllabus. There are very strong grounds to support the need for a systematic syllabus development process, the most important of them are: First, right from the onset of the course the teacher understands the ultimate objective of the course as a result of the planned process. This gives an opportunity to the teacher to interrelate and integrate all the elements. This in turn ensures better chances for the syllabus meeting its learning objectives. Secondly, a planned approach enables better selection of teaching materials and aids. The class delivery is better planned and oriented towards the end result. Finally, this syllabus development process leads to improvement of language education. The teacher plans, structures, selects, organises the teaching content in accordance with the learning objectives. Both the learner and the teacher are well aware of the outcome desired and both work in coordination to achieve the common goal. The syllabus theory has not found wide application in ELT practice yet and has often been ignored by applied linguists. However, the application of this theory could be very beneficial for the whole ELT process improvement. This research is an attempt to bring in the application of syllabus development process for SGBAUs language courses. 1.3.1 Research Questions The purpose of the study was to conduct a needs assessment revealing the language skills  of Undergraduate students. The following are the research questions this study sought to address: What is the present language proficiency level of students of under-graduate courses? Is the present curriculum able to meet the language needs of the students? Are their gaps between the desired and actual performance of the students ? Is there a difference in the language competency of students across different streams- Arts, Commerce and Science? Is there a difference in the language competency of students from first year of their undergraduate course to the third and final year? Does a co-relation exist between the students medium of instruction in school and present performance? Are there any specified learning outcomes of the language courses offered by SGBAU? Is a post-course analysis done to match the desired and achieved proficiency levels? Is there any mechanism in place to ensure uniformity of delivery across all colleges under SGBAU? What is the present process for syllabus designing? (More questions to be added) 1.4 Significance of the Study A needs assessment study is usually carried out for different purposes states Richards, 2001(cited in Ekici Nese, 2003). Understanding the learners problems, assessing whether the present syllabus adequately addresses those problems of the learner, identifying what skills the learners need in order to perform a specific role, analysing if a change in approach and strategy is required and identifying the gap, if any, in what the students are able to do and what they need to be able to do are the main reasons for needs assessments to be conducted. Identifying what the under- graduate students are able to do and what they need to be able to do is the main concern of this study. Smith (1989, cited in Ekici Nese, 2003) 12 mentions the concept of severity of needs. As all needs are not of equal importance, severity or importance of the need is used as a main criterion for prioritizing the needs, Smith, 1989 (cited in Ekici Nese, 2003). There are some needs which are of great necessity and thus require foremost attention. This study also aims at prioritizing such needs. The findings of the needs assessment in this study will be made use of in order to recommend changes in the existing curriculum in case such a need is identified according to the data collected from the students. Based on the democratic philosophy, information is gathered about the learning most desired by those groups and the gap between the desired performance from the students and what they are actually doing will reflect the discrepancy philosophy. Hopefully, su ggestions regarding the appropriate curriculum for undergraduate programs will be put forward. 1.5 Terms Frequently Used Clarification of the terms which will frequently be used and constitute the backbone of the study  is essential. To prevent misunderstanding or misinterpretation, some of the terms have been explained here. Need: Need is the difference between what a learner can presently do in a language and what he or she should be able to do. Needs Assessment: A needs assessment is a systematic set of procedures undertaken for the purpose of setting priorities and making decisions about program or organizational improvement and allocation of resources. It is a systematic process for documenting relevant needs (Reviere, 1996). ESP (English for Specific Purposes): It is an approach to language learning, which is based on learner need. The foundations of all ESP are the simple question: Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language? (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). Target Needs: Target needs refer to what the learner needs to do in the target situation (work domain) (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). Learning Needs: They refer to what the learner needs to do in order to learn. They show how the learner learns the language items. It refers to the skills that he or she uses (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). ENL: English as a Native Language ESL: English as a Second Language EFL: English as a Foreign Language Syllabus: Curriculum: (more terms shall be added if needed)

Do School Uniforms Really Serve a Purpose? Essay -- Education School U

In the past school uniforms have been a requirement for private schools only, however; the number of public schools requiring uniforms is growing rapidly (Brunsma). Every parent wants their child to feel safe while they are at school. This is just one of the many things that implementing school uniforms into public schools will do for students (Maxwell). School uniforms have also been proven to be a key asset in keeping gang colors and symbols out of schools (Maxwell). The requirement of uniforms has also led to a decrease in violence and theft due to expensive clothing and shoes, helped to instill a sense of discipline in students, a reduction in the number of distractions for students, and helped give the students a sense of community (Maxwell). Uniforms have also helped to blur the lines between rich and poor students, and helped to make it easier for school officials to identify individuals on campus that do not belong (Maxwell). Implementing school uniforms into today†™s public schools will help to reduce all of these problematic situations, and help the students to feel safe. One controversial point in the debate of school uniforms is the cost. Many are quick to say no to uniforms because they will cost too much for the parents. In response to this opposition, President Bush instated tax breaks for school supplies including uniforms (School Uniforms). Many states have also stepped in to help reduce the cost of uniforms to parents by offering additional deductions (School Uniforms). In addition, some school districts offer uniform vouchers to low-income families (School Uniforms). School districts have also been found to accept charitable donations from groups and individuals to help families purchase uniforms (Ma... ...reenhaven Press, 2005. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 28 November 2010. Huss, John A. â€Å"The Role of School Uniforms In Creating an Academically Motivating Climate: Do Uniforms Influence Teacher Expectations?.† Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitive Research 1. (2007): 31-39. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 23 November 2010. Dohrman, Margaret. â€Å"Uniforms Don’t Stifle Creativity.† St. Petersburg Times [St. Petersburg, FL] 1 October 2010: 12A. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 28 November 2010. Goodnough, Abby. â€Å"Crew Supports Having Pupils Wear Uniforms. â€Å"New York Times 9 March 1997, Late Edition (East Coast): New York Times, ProQuest. Web. 29 November 2010. Creech, Stephanie. â€Å"BOE Gets Lesson on School Uniforms.† Wilson Daily Times [Wilson, NC] 7 February 2009. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 28 November 2010.

Capital investment analysis and inflation and capital investment analysis with taxation Essay

Inflation refers to persistent increase in price of goods and services. It is also referred to as average general increases in the price of goods and services. Prior to this time, there had been lots of argument amongst writers in finance on whether or not to ignore or include inflation when computing capital budgeting. The argument has always being that inflation affects both the discount rate and the cash flow hence the effect will always cancel out. During inflation shareholders will always demand for higher rate of return because inflation has a way of eroding the purchasing power of the shareholders but the impact of inflation on the company’s rate of return and the expected cash flow are not always the same. Shareholders are not likely to reflect the entire inflation rate on a single investment because of risk diversification strategy employed by most shareholders. Besides, inflation will not affect all the cash flows in exactly the same way. The impact of inflation on labour for instance will not be the same for material cost and cannot automatically reflect on selling price. Whichever way it is, the question is, How do we incorporate the effect of inflation in capital investment decisions? How do we adjust for inflation? Will the project still be worthwhile after adjusting for inflation? In analysing the effect of inflation in capital budgeting analysis two things should be taken into consideration. i. The effect of inflation on the discount rate – As inflation increases shareholders will demand for increased return to compensate for the reduction in the value of their capital. So there will be increase in the minimum return required by an investor. ii. How to take account of the impact of inflation on future cash flows. There are basically two types of inflation: i. General inflation – this is an increase in the average price of all goods and services in an economy. General inflation affects both the discount rate and the cash flow hence it should be properly estimated. Changes in consumer price indexes are used as a measure of general inflation in Nigeria. ii. Specific inflation – refers to changes in prices of the various components that make up the project under consideration. Various components such as sales prices, labour cost, variable cost etc. Specific inflation affects only the cash flows of the project. The treatment of specific inflation should be detailed as possible. Money Cash flow and Real Cash flow In an inflationary period there is a difference between N10,000 cash and goods and services worth N10,000. The first is the money cash flow while the later is real cash flow. Money Cash flow refers to the actual amount of cash flows in nominal term. To arrive at the money cash flow we adjust each item by its specific rate of inflation. Real Cash flow on the other hand refers to purchasing power equivalent of the actual amount of cash flows. To arrive at the real cash flows we deflate (i.e. discount) money cash flows using the general rate of inflation. In project appraisal, general inflation is usually assumed to be the same throughout the project’s life. It becomes easier to analyse the impact on both cash flows and the discount rate. However specific inflation rate need not be the same throughout the project’s life. Money Cost of Capital (MCC) & Real Cost of Capital(RCC) MCC – Measures the actual discount rate in terms of the actual money. That is, it is the discount rate in nominal terms. RCC – Measures the discount rate in constant price level terms. Return on an investment are usually based on expected returns. The anticipated rate of inflation will be reflected in required rate of return for a project. This relationship has long been recognised in financial economies and it is referred to as fisher’s effect. It is expressed as (1+m) =(1+r)(1+I) Where m= Money cost of capital R= real cost of capital I = General rate of inflation From the equation above, if ‘r’ & ‘i’ are given, m could be computed as: M=(1+r)(1+i)-1 If m and I are given the r can be calculated as r = – 1 If m and r are given, then i can be calculated as follows i = – 1 Rules to follow using MCC & RCC 1. Cash flows in money or nominal terms should be discounted at money or nominal cost of capital 2. Cash flows stated in money terms can be converted to real cash flows by discounting at the general rate of inflation. The real cash flows should then be discounted at real cost of capital. 3. Discounting money cash flow at the money cost of capital and real cash flows at the real cost of capital will give the same NPV for a project. 4. The specific rate of inflation should be effected on specific cash flow only. The cash flow arrived at should then be discounted at the relevant cost of capital which in most cases is the money cost of capital except otherwise stated. 5. Money cash flows should be discounted with money cost of capital and real cash flow should be discounted with the real cost of capital. Raze Ltd is considering a project costing N50,000. The project is expected to have a life of 4 years with a residual value of N4,000. Annual cash revenue from the project is expected to be N35,000 in year 1 rising by 6% per annum for inflation. Running cost are expected to be N15,000 in the first year of the project but would increase by 11% per annum because of inflating labour costs. The general rate of inflation is expected to be 8% and the company’s money cost of capital is 18%. Advice the company on whether or not to accept the project. Rex Ltd have been considering a 5yrs project costing N3m which on an initial estimate would earn N1.1m per annum in contribution without incurring any additional fixed cost but with a nil residual value at the end of year 4. Cumulative discount rate at 15% for 5years is 3.352. The company’s director believes that the project should be undertaken because its NPV was N687,200.00 However, further investigation into the cash flow reveals the following. a. The contribution consists of annual sales of N2.7m and variable costs of N1.6m for 1million units of sales per annum. These are the expected money values in year one. b. The sales would be made through a single distributor, who has asked for a fixed selling price of N2.70 per unit for 3yrs after which prices could increase by 18% for year 4 and held constant for year 5 c. Variable costs of N1.60 per unit in year one consists of material cost of N0.80 which are expected to increase by about 5% per annum and labour costs will rise by an expected 10% per annum for each year because of existing wage agreements with the trade unions concerned and a shortage of skilled labour for the work. Required 1. Is the initial NPV calculated correct 2. Is the project viable Solution Workings Yr 1 2 3 45 Sales2,700,0002,700,0002,700,0003,186,000 3,186,000 Less Material (800,000)(840,000)(882,000)(926,000) (972,405) Labour(800,000)(880,000)(968,000)(1,064,800) (1,171,280) Net MCF1,100,000980,000 850,0001,195,100 1,042,315 Labour at 10% Material at 5% Sales at 18% in years 4 & 5 Yr Cash flowsMCC @ 15%PV 0(3,000,000)1(3,000,000) 11,100,0000.8696956,560 2980,0000.7561740,978 3850,0000.6575558,875 41,195,1000.5718683,358 51,042,3150.4972518,239 The project is viable because it has a positive NPV of N458,010 The initial NPV calculated does not take into consideration the adjustment is sales, material and labour because of inflation. Summary We have looked at the impact of inflation in capital investment appraisal. Inflation refers to the persistent increases in prices of goods and services thus affecting the financing needs if the organisation as well as its cost of debt and WACC. Inflation is treated in capital investment appraisal by discounting inflated values of future cash flows at the money cost of capital or real cash flows at real cost of capital. Review question Idi araba town council plans to build a bridge over the local river to replace the existing ferry service. Building will start in one year’s time, that is 2006 and will take 4 yrs. It has planned to sub contract the building work to a major construction company and the best tender will involve the council in a cash expense of N10m at the start of building and further payments of N5m each year until 2010 once completed, the annual maintenance cost for the bridge will be N1m per annum according to today’s prices; the annual cost is expected to rise with the general inflation rate of 7% p.a. In addition, a major overhaul is expected to be required after the first 15years of use, this will comprise N10m of material plus wage costs of a further N10m in current prices. Material prices are expected to rise with the general rate of inflation for the next 16years and then remain constant; wage cost is expected to increase by 6% over the general inflation rate for the next 3years and then increase in line with general prices. The market interest rate the council consider relevant for the whole life of the project is 17.7%. You can assume that for calculation purpose the life of the bridge is infinite. The expected use of the bridge is 20,000 vehicles per day and toll charge is expected to increase in line with general inflation. Required a. Calculate minimum toll charge in the first year of operation necessary for the bridge to break even over its life, and explain your treatment of inflation. Note: Assume all annual cash flows arise on the last day of the relevant year. b. What other factors do you think the council should consider when deciding upon the toll charge? Note: The statement that â€Å"in addition, a major overhaul is expected to be required after the first 15yrs of use† should be interpreted to mean at the end of the first 15years of use (i.e. year 20.5 +15) (ICAN , 1993) Capital Investment Analysis and Taxation Tax is an important factor to consider when computing capital investment appraisal because of its implications on cash flows. Capital investment appraisal is based on after tax incremental cash flows arising from the project. Thus, when appraising the viability of a project tax that has to be incorporated and then discounted at the relevant cost of capital. Corporation tax This is charged on the profit made on projects that is positive cash flows and then discounted at the appropriate ruling rate. Currently in Nigeria, it is charged at 30%. It is usually charged on a preceding year basis because tax is expected to be remitted 6-11 months after the end of the period in which profit were earned. In capital investment appraisal we assume a year lag for corporation tax payment, that is, tax on taxable profits made in year one will be deemed payable in year 2 except otherwise stated. Also, when losses are made on a project the losses are used to reduce tax liability hence, it is treated as tax benefit. The amount by which tax is reduced is equivalent to cash inflow to the project. Investment Incentives – This is given to encourage investment in fixed assets. The main types include investment allowance and capital allowance. Investment allowances – are receivables which should be brought into the project appraisal in the period in which they are receivable. They are use to reduce the tax liability. Capital allowance- is available to reduce a tax liability if a business is carried on and it has a balance of qualifying capital expenditure. The reduction is treated as cash savings. Capital allowance could be treated on a straight line basis or a reducing balance basis. In Nigeria it is claimed as initial allowance and annual allowance. The Nigerian law permits a company to leave at least N10 in its book as written down value for an asset that is not yet disposed by the company. The Nigerian law also restricts the capital allowances a company can claim in any year of assessment to a certain percentage of the adjusted profit so that companies that have made profit can always increase their tax liability. On disposal of an asset no capital allowance can be claimed in the year of disposal. When disposal is finally made, the difference between the proceeds on disposal and tax written down value treated as: i. A balancing charge – if the sales proceeds exceed the tax written down value. ii. A balancing allowance if the tax written down value exceeds the sales proceeds. Assumptions on Investment allowance and capital allowance claims Two possible assumptions can be made on when to deduct capital allowance claims i. We can assume that the first claim is set – off on profits that occur in year one and it is deductible in year 1 ii. The most acceptable by examiners and in practice is to assume that the first claim occurs in year one and the tax savings occur one year later that is, year 2. Illustration 1 A company purchases a machinery at a cost of N10,000 in respect of a project which has a life of 5years and a residual value of N500. Calculate the capital allowance on a straight line basis that will be used to reduce tax payment in each year of the project. The initial allowance is 50% while the annual allowance is charge at 25%. Year ClaimsPoolAllowance 1. Initial allowance (50% x 10,000) 5,000 10,000 Annual allowance (25% x 10,000) -5,000 -10) 1,247.50(6,247.5)6,247.5 2. written down value c/f3,752.5 Annual allowance(1,247.5)1,247.5 3. written down value c/f2,505 Annual allowance(1,247.50)1.247.5 4. written down value c/f1,257.5 Annual allowance(1.247.5)1.247.5 5. written down value c/f10 Sales proceed(500) Balancing charge 490(490) Illustration 2 XYZ company is considering investing in plant and machinery costing N100,000. The machine has a life of 5 years after which it can be sold for N5,000. The machine would generate annual cost of saving of N35,000. Investment incentive on the machinery will be available as follows: Investment allowance 20%, initial allowance 20%, annual allowance 10% on a straight line basis. Tax rate 35% payable one year in arrears and after tax cost of capital is 15%. Should the machine be purchased? Solution Workings Investment allowance = 20% x 100,000 = N20,000 Capital allowance computation. Year Claims Capital Tax written allowance N down value N 1 Initial allowance ( 20% x 100,000)20,000 Annual allowance(10% x 100,000) – 20,000) 8,000 28,00072,000 2 8,00064,000 3 8,00056,000 4 8,00048,000 5 48,000 – 5000 Computation of tax liability Year 1 2 3 4 5 Cost of savings35,00035,00035,00035,00035,000 Investment allowance(20,000)—- Capital allowance(28,000)(8,000)(8,000)(8,000)(43,000) Taxable profits13,00027,00027,00027,0008,000 Tax at 35%4,550(9,450)(9,450)(9,450)2,800 Computation of NPV Year Machinery Savings Tax Net cash DCF @15% PV 0 (N100,000)- – (N100,000)1 (N100,000) 1 35,000 – 35,0000.869630,436 2 35,000 4,550 39,5500.756129,903.76 3 35,000 (9,450) 25,5500.657516,799.13 4 35,000 (9,450) 25,5500.571814,609.49 5 50000 35,000 (9,450) 30,5500.497215,189.46 6 2,800 2,8000.43231,210.44 8,148.28 The NPV is positive and thus, the machinery should be purchased. Illustration 3 New ventures Nigeria Ltd is considering a project with an initial cost of N5m. The project is to last for 5years with a scrap value of N10,000 .The project involves the production and sales of product X. Estimated future sales quantity and fixed costs are given below: YearSales QtyFixed Costs UnitsN,000 1100,0001,000 2110,0001,100 3120,0001,200 4120,0001,250 5125,0001,300 The selling price of product X is expected to be N50 per unit in year 1 rising by 5% per annum because of inflation. Variable costs are expected to be N25 per unit in year 1 rising by 8% per annum because of inflation. General level of inflation in the country is currently 7.5%. The company can claim capital allowance at the rate of 20% on the reducing balance basis on this project. Tax is currently at the rate of 35% payable one year in arrears. If the company’s after tax real cost of capital is 7%, should the company invest in the project? Solution Workings Computation of cash profit Year Sales Revenue Variable cost (N) Fixed CostProfits(N) 1100,000(N50)100,000(25)1,000,0001,500,000 2110,000(50)(1.05)110,000(25)(1.08)1,100,0001,705,000 3120,000(50)(1.05)2120,000(25)(1.08)21,200,0001,915,800 4120,000(50)(1.05)3120,000(25)(1.08)31,250,0001,916,614 5125,000(50)(1.05)4120,000(25)(1.08)41,300,0002,045,386 Computation of capital allowance(Reducing balance basis) Year Capital allowance Written down value 120% x 5,000,0001,000,0004,000,000 220% x 4,000,000800,0003,200,000 320% x 3,200,000640,0002,560,000 420% x 2,560,000512,0002,048,000 52,048,000 – 10,0002,038,000- Computation of tax liability Year 12345 Profits1,500,0001,705,0001,915,8001,916,6142,045,386 Less cap allowance(1,000,000)(800,000)(640,000)(512,000) (2,038,000) 500,000905,0001,275,8001,404,6147,386 Tax @ 35% 175,000316,750446,530491,6152,585 Cost of capital to use: (1+m) = (1+r)(1+i) i+m = (1.07) (1.075) M = 1.15025 – 1 M = 0.1503 x 100 M = 15.03% Computation of NPV Year Cost/Residual Cash profits Tax liability Net cash flow DCF@15.03% PV 0 (5,000,000) – -(5,000,000) 1 (5,000,000) 1 1,500,000-1,500,000 0.86931,303,900 21,705,000(175,000)1,530,000 0.75571,156.221 31,915,800(316,750)1,599,050 0.65701,050,576 41,916,614(446,530)1,470,084 0.5712839,712 5 10,0002,045,386(491,615)1,536,771 0.4965776,412 6(2,585) (2,585) 0.4317(1,116) 125,755 The company should embark on the project because it has positive NPV Illustration 4 SCG limited is considering a project that has the following cash flow estimates YearCash revenueCash Operating Expenses 1N’000N’000 21,600900 31,8001,100 41,400600 51,200500 500200 The project cost is N1.4m and has an estimated residual value of N10,500. The above cash flow profile has not taken into consideration the effect of changing prices. If effect on changing selling prices are taken into consideration cash revenue are expected to rise by 10% after year 1 and operating expenses by 11% after year 1. General level of inflation in the country is currently 15%.SCG Ltd can claim capital allowance at the rate of 25% on the reducing balance basis on this project. tax is currently at the rate of 35% payable one year in arrears. If the company’s after tax cost of capital is 20%,should the company invest in the project? Solution Workings Computation of cash profit Year Cash revenue (N) Operating expenses(N) Profits(N) 11,600,000 900,000700,000 21,800,000(1.10) 1,100,000(1.11)759,000 31,400,000(1.10)2 600,000(1.11)2 954,740 41,200,000(1.10)3 500,000(1.11)3913,384.50 5 500,000(1.10)4 200,000(1.11)4428,435.92 Computation of capital allowance Year Capital allowanceWritten down value 125% x 1,400,000350,0001,050,000 225% x 1,050,000262,500 787,500 325% x 787,500196,875 590,625 425% x 590,625147,656.25 442,968.75 5N442,968.75 – 10,500432,468.75 Computation of tax liability 12345 Profits 700,000 759,000 954,740 913,384.50 428,435.92 Less capital allowance 350,000 262,500 196,875 147,656.25 432,468.75 Taxable Profit 350,000 496,500 757,865 765,728.25 4032.83 Tax@ 35% (122,500) (173,775) (265,252.75) (268,005) 1,411.5 Computation of NPV Year Cost/Residual Cash Profits Tax liability Net Cash flow DCF@20% PV 0 (N1,400,000) — (1,400,000)1 (N1,400,000) 1 700,000- 700,0000.8333583,310 2759,000(N,122,500) 636,5000.6944441,986 3954,740(173,775) 780,9650.5787451,944 4913,385(265,253) 648,1320.4823312,594 5 10,500428,436(268,005) 170,9310.4019 68,697 61,412 1,4120.3349 473 459,004 The company should embark on the project because it has a positive NPV Summary The effect of taxation on a project will be to increase or reduce tax liability a company pays to the tax authority which will in turn increase or reduce the cash flows that will be used in arriving at the NPV of the project. When taxation is reflected in the cash flows, a post tax cost of capital should be used in evaluating the viability of the project. Review questions 1. Turnaround Nig Ltd is considering an investment that requires an outlay of N100,000 to be spent on the acquisition of necessary plant and machinery. The investment is expected to last for a period of 5 years by which time the residual value of plant and machinery is expected to be N18,000.The net revenue is estimated at Period 12345 Net revenue 30,000 45,000 50,000 52,000 20,000 In addition, turnaround Nigeria Plc expensed an investment of N10,000 in working capital and advertising expenses of N2,000 in period 1 and period 2. Turnaround Nigeria Plc has an after tax cost of capital of 10% and the application tax rate is 40% while the rates of capital allowance are initial allowance 20%,annual allowance 10%.Payment of tax claim may be assumed to be exactly one year in arrears. Required: Determine if the investment is worldwide 1. Links Ltd is considering investing in a project that will involve purchase of plant and machinery costing N150,000.The plant and machinery are expected to have a life span of 5 years and a residual value of N8,000. the project will generate cash profits as follows: Capital allowance is available on the plant and machinery at the rate of 25% of cost on the reducing balance basis. Tax is currently payable at 35% payable one year in arrears. The company’s after tax cost of capital is 18%.advise if the project is worthwhile.

My Favorite Teacher Essay

I walked into my Advanced Composition class on the first day of school and was greeted by my peppy, upbeat teacher, Ms. Jorgensen. I knew it was going to be a fun semester just from that first day of class. In Advanced Composition, I had a lot of freedom to write what we wanted, when we wanted to. This helped me mold my papers into perfection with the help of Ms. Jorgensen’s phenomenal editing skills. She taught me how to write a paper that only I could come up with. She encouraged me to do this by using different writing techniques. Then, throughout first semester, my writing became interesting and bold†¦instead of dry and boring. Overall Ms. J, has been my favorite teacher in my high school career. She has always been there to not only help me, but to also help other kids that are struggling, whether she likes them or not. She never does your work for you, but she points you in the right direction. I also had Ms. J for College Strategies. In this class, she helped each student learn what they needed to have a successful college career. We learned about study skills, nutrition, and self-advocacy, sleep, and even how to pick our classes and professors. Throughout the class, she looked to us for ideas. She really wanted us to be learning about what we wanted to know. She helped us write our college essays (which helped me get into my first-choice school). And she even taught us relaxation skills. I use these skills before basketball games—and even before big tests. Ms. J was a person I could relate to—and a person I admired. She rarely wears a frown on her face and her smile rubs off on all her students. This is why I appreciate having Ms. Jorgensen as a teacher so much.

16 Essays - Americas, Christopher Columbus

Myisha Hassan 10/31/16 Essays - Americas, Christopher Columbus Myisha Hassan 10/31/16 725 Social Studies Why we should not celebrate Christopher Columbus day Christopher Columbus was born in Italy, 1451 and was an explorer. In 1492, he sailed from Europe to America thinking that he had arrived in Asia. So every year, on the second Monday in October, the people in the United States celebrate a national holiday in memory of Christopher Columbus, the one who discovered the new continent. But Columbus did not 'discover' America. There were many people already living there. Vikings from Europe had landed in America 500 years before and Native Americans were living there too. So we are celebrating a holiday when Columbus claimed the land of others, helped bring diseases over, made the natives into slaves, and killed many innocent lives. Because Columbus brought disasters to the Native Americans, many people opposed the Columbus celebrations. They began to think whether Columbus Day should be considered as a national holiday in the United States. Clearly, Christopher Columbus is not a hero, but a mass murderer and should not have hi s own federal holiday. Many people who are not informed of what Columbus did, celebrate what they think he did. They think he discovered the Americas and made the world as it is today. That is not completely true. He came to the Americas and completely took over. He cut off people's hands and let them bleed to death. He also killed anyone in his way of getting gold, land, resources, and other materials that Europe needed. The main reason Columbus Day draws attention and debate is because of how the explorer's arrival to the New World affected indigenous people. European settlers not only introduced new diseases to the Americas that wiped out thousands of Native people, but also war, colonization, slavery, and torture. He was a greedy person who didn't treat the Native people as humans and converted them to Catholicism against their will. This is why October twelfth should be a day of sorrow and not be celebrated with parades and parties. However, there are many others that believe Columbus is a hero. "Many may argue that Columbus doesn't deserve to be celebrated and that he is a killer and rapist but what you call home today is because of Columbus." This can be true, but another European discovered the Americas 500 years prior, so someone other than Christopher Columbus knew there was more than just one land out there. Columbus and his gang did bring the Americas livestock and varieties of vegetables and fruit, but he also brought disease and treated the people wrong. Many others may also say that he did not start slavery because it dated back to Ancient Egypt. This is true but he had started slavery before and after his journey to the New World. He had sold Native Americans and Africans and nearly half of the slaves died during the journey to the Americas or Europe. He did not have to make these innocent people into slaves. He could have been friendly and created allies with the Natives. So, in other word s, Columbus chose the act of evil and enslavement of the kind Natives. He probably even created a bigger amount of slavery than Ancient Egypt. After all, no one celebrates Adolph Hitler Day in Germany using the argument that because he rescued the German economy, there should be a national h oliday in his name. The overall point trying to be made here is that Cristopher Columbus discovered the New World much like a meteorite discovered the dinosaurs. And good old Columbus, mass murderer, and slave master gets his own federal holiday. This is an honor shared by Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr. and the father of transatlantic slave trade is honored on the same level as them. Christopher Columbus, as it turned out, was responsible for widespread genocide; he allowed his men to murder, hurt and enslave indigenous people. The evil actions of Columbus far outweigh the few accomplishments he achieved. Considering all of this, Columbus Day clearly shouldn't be a thing, and it's time to change it. So this day will never be an American tradition, it will always be a recent mistake. Original

The Essence of Chinatown Essays

The Essence of Chinatown Essays The Essence of Chinatown Essay The Essence of Chinatown Essay Essay Topic: Chinatown It is Chinese New Year. The hustle and bustle of trade, the haggling of prices fills the air as people jostle through the crowd to buy that kilogram of barbecued pork, or that bunch of golden rat-shaped decorations to welcome the year of the Rat. However, many people simply run through the epicentre of joyful noise and energy that can only be Chinatown without stopping to wonder at the past it possesses and the reason for its existence in a predominantly Chinese Singapore. Modern day Chinatown I stand silently at the start of Pagoda Street and look down from my vantage point of an overhead bridge to see a place that embodies the very story of Chinatown is the Chinatown Heritage Centre. Sitting right in the center of Chinatown, it is a quaint shop house that has been converted into a wealth of memories and untold stories. These stories are showed to the public on three different levels and exhibit the lives of early settlers. It traces the evolution and growth of both Chinatown and the Chinese people of Singapore, from coolie workers and maids to bosses and politicians. The Heritage Centre shows why Chinatown is the way it is in modern day Singapore. It tells the story of a place that never really sleeps through an exhibit called â€Å"Where the day never ends† and tells us of how Chinatown was always rampant with festive mood during celebrations like the Lunar New Year. Like present day Chinatown, the Chinatown of the past was an energetic place whenever Chinese festivals were around the corner. When asked about what the Heritage Centre taught him, a secondary school student whom I interviewed on location told me, â€Å"This place shows us that that every Chinese person had a stake in Chinatown. It also teaches me not to forget my roots,† The Heritage Centre, for many youth, also carries a cautionary tale against the four vices of life. An exhibit details the lives of people who have fallen to opium smoking, prostitution, gambling and secret societies and is still a relevant warning to today’s Chinese population in Singapore about the dangers of indulging in forbidden pleasures. A Prostitute’s Room I asked one shopper why she went to Chinatown to visit the Heritage Centre and I was told that, â€Å"Chinatown is the place many Chinese had lived in the past. I am a Chinese and I really like to know what my roots are,† What she said clearly highlights to us why Singapore needs a Chinatown: Cultural identity. The Heritage Centre tells us that Chinatown has existed ever since Singapore was conceptualised as a colonial state. The place was characterised by shop houses that possessed five-foot walkways and cramped quarters on the upper floors. Large scale immigration forced occupants of Chinatown to stay in small, cramped and sordid cubicles that lacked proper sanitation and facilities. People squeezed together, sometimes seven in cubicle. However, Chinatown was more than just a living quarter for the Chinese migrants who came by boat from mainland China. It was a retail location for uniquely Chinese goods, a uniquely Chinese socialisation ground which gave birth to the coffee shops that we see in contemporary Singapore. A life-sized model of such coffee shops can be seen in the Heritage Centre. Chinatown was, most importantly, a place representative of escape from oppression, poverty and injustice in mainland China. My late great-grand mother, who came from China with nothing but the clothes on her back once told me that, â€Å"Chinatown, although small, cramp and noisy, was the home away from home for many, a place where Chinese people put down new roots and built new lives for themselves and their descendants. † I believe that this spirit of emancipation and determination to make it in the world is what is so beautiful about Chinatown’s Heritage Centre. While Singapore is a multi-racial nation that does not discriminate creeds, race or religion, it is undeniably mixed in its racial denominations to a very high degree. As such, people need to hold on to their cultural identity. Unlike many other countries where Chinese are not the dominant race and thus need a Chinatown, Singapore’s Chinese population needs a Chinatown not to give them a sense of home, but to satisfy a deep-seated need to retain the uniqueness of being Chinese while becoming Singaporean all the time. Chinese, like all other races, need a place where we can identify with both culturally and, on a deeper level, spiritually. We need a place that tells us who we are and where we really came from and Chinatown provides us with that cultural belonging and identity. Chinatown is â€Å"where Chinese go to be Chinese and not worry about how we would be looked at, simply because it is Chinatown,† as said by a passer-by when I asked him what Chinatown meant to him as a Chinese person. When I started primary research, I did not expect such a deep-rooted sense of belonging to Chinatown in the Chinese people because even I, a Chinese, did not have great attachment for the place. However, I have come to understand that Chinatown is more than a place. It is a record book, a place that history has etched its mark on to educate and enlighten future generations of Chinese people. Therefore, the true idea behind why we need a Chinatown in Singapore is because the essence of the Chinese people is the essence of Chinatown.

Battle of Omdurman in the Mahdist War

Battle of Omdurman in the Mahdist War The Battle of Omdurman took place in present-day Sudan during the Mahdist War (1881-1899). Battle of Omdurman - Date The British triumphed on September 2, 1898. Armies Commanders British: Major General Horatio Kitchener8,200 British, 17,600 Egyptian Sudanese Mahdists: Abdullah al-Taashiapprox. 52,000 men Battle of Omdurman - Background Following the capture of Khartoum by the Mahdists and the death Major General Charles Gordon on January 26, 1885, British leaders began contemplating how to retake power in Sudan. Over the next several years, the urgency of this operation waxed and waned as William Gladstones Liberal Party exchanged power with Lord Salisburys Conservatives. In 1895, the British consul-general of Egypt, Sir Evelyn Baring, Earl of Cromer, finally convinced Salisburys government to take action citing the desire to create a Cape-to-Cairo chain of colonies and the need to prevent foreign powers from entering the area. Concerned about the nations finances and international opinion, Salisbury gave permission for Cromer to began planning the reconquest of Sudan, but stipulated that he was to use only Egyptian forces and that all actions were to appear to take place under Egyptian authority. To lead Egypts army, Cromer selected Colonel Horatio Kitchener of the Royal Engineers. An efficient planner, Kitchener was promoted to major general (in Egyptian service) and appointed sirdar (commander-in-chief). Taking command of Egypts forces, Kitchener began a rigorous training program and equipped his men with modern weapons. Battle of Omdurman - Planning By 1896, the sirdars army numbered around 18,000 well-trained men. Advancing up the Nile in March 1896, Kitcheners forces moved slowly, consolidating their gains as they went. By September, they had occupied Dongala, just above the third cataract of the Nile, and had met little resistance from the Mahdists. With his supply lines badly stretched, Kitchener turned to Cromer for additional funding. Playing on the governments fears of French intrigue in East Africa, Cromer was able to secure more money from London. With this in hand, Kitchener began building the Sudan Military Railroad from his base at Wadi Halfa to a terminus at Abu Hamed, 200 miles to the southeast. As the construction crews pressed through the desert, Kitchener dispatched troops under Sir Archibald Hunter to clear Abu Hamed of Mahdist forces. This was accomplished with minimal casualties on August 7, 1897. With the completion of the railroad on in late October, Salisbury decided to expand the governments commitment to the operation and began sending the first of 8,200 British troops to Kitchener. These were joined by several gunboats. Battle of Omdurman - Kitcheners Victory Concerned about the Kitcheners advance, the leader of the Mahdist army, Abdullah al-Taashi sent 14,000 men to attack the British near Atara. On April 7, 1898, they were badly defeated and suffered 3,000 dead. As Kitchener prepared for the push to Khartoum, Abdullah raised a force of 52,000 to block the Anglo-Egyptian advance. Armed with a mix of spears and antique firearms they mustered near the Mahdist capital of Omdurman. On September 1, British gunboats appeared in the river off Omdurman and shelled the city. This was followed by the arrival of Kitcheners army in the nearby village of Egeiga. Forming a perimeter around the village, with the  river at their back, Kitcheners men waited for the arrival of the Mahdist army. Around dawn on September 2, Abdullah attacked the Anglo-Egyptian position with 15,000 men while a second Mahdist force continued moving north. Equipped with the latest European rifles, Maxim machine guns, and artillery, Kitcheners men mowed down the attacking Mahdist dervishes (infantry). With the attack defeated, the 21st Lancers were ordered to reconnoiter in force towards Omdurman. Moving out, they met a group of 700 Hadenoa tribesman. Switching to the attack, they were soon confronted by 2,500 dervishes which had been hiding in a dry streambed. Charging through the enemy, they fought a bitter battle before rejoining the main army. Around 9:15, believing the battle won, Kitchener ordered his men to begin advancing on Omdurman. This movement exposed his right flank to a Mahdist force that was lurking to west. Shortly after beginning their march, three Sudanese and one Egyptian battalion came under fire from this force. Compounding the situation was the arrival of 20,000 men under Osman Shiekh El Din which had moved north earlier in the battle. Shiekh El Dins men soon began attacking the Sudanese brigade of Colonel Hector MacDonald. While the threatened units made a stand and poured disciplined fire into the approaching enemy, Kitchener began wheeling the rest of the army around to join the fight. As at Egeiga, modern weaponry triumphed and the dervishes were shot down in alarming numbers. By 11:30, Abdullah gave up the battle as lost and fled the field. With the Mahdist army destroyed, the march to Omdurman and Khartoum was resumed. Battle of Omdurman - Aftermath The Battle of Omdurman cost the Mahdists a stunning 9,700 killed, 13,000 wounded, and 5,000 captured. Kitcheners losses were a mere 47 dead and 340 wounded. The victory at Omdurman concluded the campaign to retake Sudan and Khartoum was quickly reoccupied. Despite the victory, several officers were critical of Kitcheners handling of the battle and cited MacDonalds stand for saving the day. Arriving at Khartoum, Kitchener was ordered to proceed south to Fashoda to block French incursions in the area.

Nurses' Responsibility During an Emergency Situation Essay

Nurses' Responsibility During an Emergency Situation - Essay Example Their work outside the hospital includes providing water, food and sanitation services as well and communicating the health implications and needs to the people affected (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2008). This paper looks at what the public nurse work involves when a disaster such as a typhoon hits a populated area. Hospitals When a typhoon hits an area and causes physical injuries and death, hospitals normally find themselves overwhelmed by the number of patients that have to be attended to. Most disasters that involve water, like typhoons are significant due to the levels of damage and mortality involved (Adelman and Legg, 2009). Typhoons may cause people to get injured due to the structural damage that it causes. Those injured may have inside buildings that came down when the typhoon struck. Others might have been driving and their vehicles crushed as a result of the disaster. Others may have been injured trying to escape from the ensuing floods and destruction. Typhoons may also cau se environmental imbalances which may in turn increase the risk of environmental hazards and communicable diseases. The likelihood of diseases such as typhoid and cholera is very high when a disaster such as this occurs (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2008). Hospitals must always be ready to handle such emergency situations that arise from natural or man made disasters. ... It is the duty of nurses to ensure that the loss of life due to injuries is kept at a minimal level (Carmona, 2010). The nurses should coordinate with other hospital staff to ensure that doctors attend to those who are seriously injured as fast as possible. The nurses should also work with doctors in the Intensive Care Unit and emergency centers to ensure that there is enough equipment and medical material to take care of patients (Gebbie and Qureshi, 2002). If there is need to get outside help, the nurses have the responsibility of ensuring that there is proper coordination of activities so that patients can be given the attention they need. The nurses working in hospitals during emergency situations should ensure that all facilities available are well utilized to help save lives (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2008). Water When a typhoon occurs, there is normally water everywhere, making it hard for people to get clean water. In the nursing context, it is the duty of the public health nur se to ensure that people affected by a typhoon or any other disaster for that matter get clean water, especially for drinking and cooking. Nurses should work hand in hand with other emergency agencies and organizations to ensure that everyone has access to clean water, especially for drinking (Adelman and Legg, 2009). By providing clean drinking water to the community affected by a typhoon, or any other disaster for that matter, he nurses would be fulfilling theory part of their role of providing basic care and life requirements. Water should be made available to everyone who has been affected by a disaster. In the case of a typhoon, it is very difficult to

Web technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Web technology - Essay Example Now search engines are working in this regards and comes with the solution of personalized search so as give its users search results based on the user demographic information and interests and taste. In addition, these days search history can be also maintained by search engines, which users can see on later days. Aim: The study of personalized web searching will provide an opportunity to learn how different personalized search engines works and make use of user specific information for assisting web-searching process. Implement a preliminary web searching system (prototype) based on the design and refine the searching mechanism and the system designed to further improve its effectiveness through comparison with other methods. In this section, initially a definition and benefits from the personalized search will be presented than after history and preliminary analysis of some personalized search engines (Google, Yahoo and MSN) will be presented. After that, various tools and technologies that are going to be used for this project will covered in methodology section. Personalized search is the fine-tuning of search results and advertising based on an individual’s preferences, demographic information and other factors. Presumably, the better a search engine understands a user’s interests and preferences, the better able it is to target search results, advertising, sponsored links, etc. [Johnson 2005] After definition now question arises, why these days so many big giants (companies) are interested in providing personalized search. The next few paragraphs will give answer to this question. The first benefit is financial. According to Johnson (2005), personalized search drives financial benefits both in short term and long term. In the short term, advertisers increase revenue by targeting ads and promotions at the users who

The Rising Cost of Obstetrics and Pre-natal Care in the U.S Research Paper

The Rising Cost of Obstetrics and Pre-natal Care in the U.S - Research Paper Example For commercial coverage, a pregnant woman to deliver by vaginal birth will incur average payments of $12,500 while for cesarean childbirth the patient has to pay $16,983. In Medicaid, payments are down: vaginal births cost $6,117 and $7,983 for cesarean births. For both Commercial and Medicaid, payments are 25% lower. Commercial insurers have a record of 100% payment than Medicaid. (Truven Health Analytics, 2013, p. 17) Payments for both vaginal and cesarean methods go to professional services, surgical fees, therapeutic fees, and so on. Payments for maternal care are higher than childbirth. These payments go to facility fees, professional fees, laboratory charges, and payments for drugs, among others. (Truven Health Analytics, 2013, p. 18) Will Affordable Care Act (ACA) solve this problem of rising cost of childbirth? The ObamaCare wants to expand the responsibilities and benefits of Medicaid by discarding the preconditions and cover more benefits for pregnant women. If the Obama ad ministration is able to fully implement the ObamaCare, then this might solve the problem. The Medicaid program can solve the problem by expanding the benefits and by strengthening its imbursement rate. One of the complaints against the Medicaid was its imbursement rate which was too low (Chua, 2006, p. 2). Enrollees had to search for private insurance to have more benefits. But if this discrepancy is corrected, then American women might change their minds. Through the Affordable Care Act, the administration has put more investments for health insurance in the amount of $10 billion annually for the next five years. The first goal is to digitize the health information system. The next step is to scratch away the... The Rising Cost of Obstetrics and Pre-natal Care in the U.S. The problem with cesarean births and the needed medicine has first to be addressed because of its high cost. The ObamaCare has also increased the coverage of Medicaid. This is one of the most significant phases of the law since Medicaid has a reputation of low imbursement rate. Added to this is the fact that it covers the poor and most vulnerable sector of society. Putting more emphasis on financing, the government can improve the performance of Medicaid and Medicare in order to improve quality of healthcare. High cost of medicine, hospitalization, and all the other allied expenses can be addressed adequately and fairly. The ObamaCare must provide immediate help to the four million childbirths every year. The cost for this human phenomenon can be lowered to ensure that our young mothers and new-born babies receive the best quality-healthcare possible. Young pregnant women don’t know where to go. The government should address this by redirecting local governments to help solve the problem. Present costs of vaginal and cesarean childbirths, from $32,093 and $51,125 respectively, have got to be reduced through government financing. The situation – that young pregnant women have nowhere to go and are struggling of the high cost of laboratory tests – can be reversed. The world must again feel that the American healthcare system is the best. That can only happen if Americans feel safe about their health.

What is Philosophy Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

What is Philosophy - Term Paper Example This essay demonstrates that ontology argues with no apology for allowance of an overarching idea, a whole nature of things, which exist as independent of the mind. It answers its basic question of ‘what’ with a basic explanation of ‘what is’. Although the word ontology is a term used more fluently from the 17th-century tradition of thought, it can be traced back to Aristotle where he identifies that there is an ‘episteme’ that need only investigate being as being and nothing more. With the tractional loss caused by epistemological thought, ontology lends to metaphysics what it had lost; the objective science of being as such, as identified by Peter van Inwagen (Inwagen). Nonetheless, the grounds for epistemology are not dismissible. The arguments against structural universals and the dire need to accommodate empirical interference have come to have an overbearing reach into the crux of shaping existential truths. The fact of ‘relational’ truths, as David Lewis calls them, places a larger burden on the validity of truth as a philosopher might know it, an endeavor to achieve ‘improved’ truths. In a traditional sense, it is easy to relegate it to its tight premise whereby ‘justified true belief’ is the essence of knowledge of existence; it would not be quite fair to let it remain thus encapsulated. The emphasis places on experience and/or reason is not by any means a phenomenon to ignore. It is also necessary to see here, that experience and reason may well be being termed as objective truths by epistemologists, a fallacy in its own theorem. It is easily imaginable that while one must work with major presupposition in only in ontological realms whereas it is only natural that those who work on epistemological lines inculcate just as many basic assertions in their arguments on validation of it.

United States Counterinsurgency (COIN) Operations Essay

United States Counterinsurgency (COIN) Operations - Essay Example Effective intelligence plays a major on wars against the insurgence as stipulated on the FM 3-24. The study reveals that the success of the operation on fields to bring down insurgents rest upon the effectiveness of the counter-insurgences team. Researchers have realized that a clear analysis of cultures, values, interest and strategic plans of a certain group in a society is the way forward to successful counterinsurgency. Studying the behavior of the insurgence, the population of the host country and the state will improve the success of the counterinsurgent team1. Additionally, the population provides more information regarding their behavior and the mode of insurgents. Research indicates that the insurgents use the population to gain their support and undermine the governing body. It is also indicated that the insurgents use the readily available tools to improve their supports. Such tools that can foster their support include political, economic, and informational to undermine the incumbent government. About such efforts by the insurgents, the counterinsurgency team would have to integrate themselves with the population. Such effort will provide them with more information about the techniques use by the insurgence. There are limitations to successful counterinsurgency; one that is clear is that most human intelligence operates in a short period in places with a high number of insurgence or in places that require counterinsurgency team. As clearly stated above, COIN requires deep analysis of the culture, believes, interest and perception of a certain group or an individual. Achievement of this can only be realized after a long period of mixing and studying such

Diversity Consciousnesses development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Diversity Consciousnesses development - Essay Example In the past, there has been a high level of exclusion in the work force. Such exclusion has been defined by discrimination by some minority groups as well as women in the work place. Minority groups in the United States exhibit racial differences from the mainstream population comprising of the white Americans (Dayer-Berenson, 2010). After immense research concerning diversity, it has emerged that it can be a source of a high level of creativity as well as innovation. Such realization has compelled and motivated American organizations to view diversity in a positive way. Many organizations are struggling to embrace diversity and utilize the potential of diversity in a bid to register growth in their organizations. As Americans become more accommodating of the minority groups, and as civil right movements place emphasis on the need for inclusion, a salient need for diversity consciousness has emerged. This paper will analyze diversity practices evident at the union county college as the focus organization in this study. Moreover, the paper will analyze the findings from two other organizations considering whether they have embraced diversity and whether the employers exhibit diversity consciousness. It is critical to understand the theories and perspectives that define the workforce diversity. With an increasing emphasis on the need for employers to develop diversity consciousness during the hiring process, there is a need to understand the relevant diversity practices that exhibit the presence of diversity consciousness. Evidently, the American workforce comprises of individuals from different backgrounds and personalities. Organizations that have embraced diversity usually benefit from such efforts as a diverse workforce exhibits more core competencies. In a bid to evaluate the modern theories that govern the workforce diversity, it is critical to consider the practices of a specified organization and evaluate the views of the employers concerning the issue

United States Counterinsurgency (COIN) Operations Essay

United States Counterinsurgency (COIN) Operations - Essay Example Effective intelligence plays a major on wars against the insurgence as stipulated on the FM 3-24. The study reveals that the success of the operation on fields to bring down insurgents rest upon the effectiveness of the counter-insurgences team. Researchers have realized that a clear analysis of cultures, values, interest and strategic plans of a certain group in a society is the way forward to successful counterinsurgency. Studying the behavior of the insurgence, the population of the host country and the state will improve the success of the counterinsurgent team1. Additionally, the population provides more information regarding their behavior and the mode of insurgents. Research indicates that the insurgents use the population to gain their support and undermine the governing body. It is also indicated that the insurgents use the readily available tools to improve their supports. Such tools that can foster their support include political, economic, and informational to undermine the incumbent government. About such efforts by the insurgents, the counterinsurgency team would have to integrate themselves with the population. Such effort will provide them with more information about the techniques use by the insurgence. There are limitations to successful counterinsurgency; one that is clear is that most human intelligence operates in a short period in places with a high number of insurgence or in places that require counterinsurgency team. As clearly stated above, COIN requires deep analysis of the culture, believes, interest and perception of a certain group or an individual. Achievement of this can only be realized after a long period of mixing and studying such

Effective Training Essay Example for Free

Effective Training Essay Human Resource Development or HRD is about the enhancing and widening skills by helping people to grow within the organization, and by enabling them to make better use of their abilities and skills. In an increasingly competitive world, which is the reality for most organizations today, few would disagree with the view that a link should exist between the training and the development that the organization undertakes and the business strategy of that organization (Wilson, 1999). Personnel are now widely regarded as ‘human resources’ with the implication that, like other resources, they are to be valued and carefully managed. The amount of financial resource available for the training and development of employees is not unlimited, necessitating decisions where to deploy training activity to maximum effect, and such decision can only be made if those responsible for ‘Human Resource Development’ or HRD are clear about the organization’s strategy and priorities (Wilson, 1999). An alignment between strategy and training and development is now commonly regarded as good business sense in all corners of the globe, but despite this, there is some evidence from both Europe and the United States that, while at an intellectual level this link is recognized, the practice may be considerably different in many countries. Training and development has traditionally been a functional division of the personnel department concerned with carrying out the identification of training and development needs, planning and designing training, implementing training and evaluating it (Wilson, 1999). Small organization handles the responsibilities of Human Resource Development and its Human Resources by emulating larger organization in the way they implement ways in guiding their personnel to be more productive and skillful. The only difference between small and large organization is on the process or methods they implement their ways due to lesser personnels.

Computer Is Derived From The Latin Term Computer Science Essay

Computer Is Derived From The Latin Term Computer Science Essay The word Computer is derived from the Latin term computare which means to calculate. THAKUR computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with information. A computer is electronic device that does not do any work by itself but works under the instruction given by user. A computer is the combination of Hardware and Software. A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or data provided by user and process them which can be stored, retrieved at the time of necessity. (GCF LearnFree.org, 2013) Hardware is the physical component that can be touched, be it a digital watch, calculator, cellular phone, laptop, desktop computer or any other item that can hold intangible information (Starr, 2013). It is the part of computer that actually does the work according to the instructions provided to them. Moreover, it provides platform for software to operate on it. Hardware is a comprehensive term for all the physical parts of the computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on (Open Projects, 2013). Fig1.1: Intel D975XBX Motherboard (Apoptosis, 2005) Simpson (n.d.) defines software as a general term for information thats recorded onto some kind of medium. Software refers to programs or applications that need to be installed into a computer or hardware in order to perform certain tasks. It is a set of codes that gives instructions to the hardware. In other term software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Fig1.2: Computer Software Computer cannot operate or perform any task by its own will; it needs someone to perform any task. That someone is called user of the computer. Thus we can concluded like this Computer System = Hardware + Software + User Task 1: Identify major role of computer system in bank. (1.1) (P1) Duhaime.org (2013) defines bank as a corporation empowered to deal with cash, domestic and foreign, and to receive the deposits of money and to loan those monies to third-parties. A bank is a financial organization where people can deposit their money for safety, withdraw money and take loan to start a new project. In 1899, the United States Supreme Court defines bank as an institution, usually incorporated with power to issue its promissory notes intended to circulate as money or to receive the money of others on general deposit, to form a joint fund that shall be used by the institution, for its own benefit, for one or more of the purposes of making temporary loans and discounts; of dealing in notes, foreign and domestic bill or exchange, coin, bullion, credits, and the remission of money; or with both these powers and with the privileges in addition to these basic powers of receiving special deposits and making collections for the holders of negotiable paper, if the institutions s ees fit to engage in such business.(duhaime.org, 2013) As bank involved in monitory transactions of public to the public security of public property is essential part of banking. Richardson (2013) says computer help bank personnel operate more efficiently and effectively and help to track transactions, help process other customer information as well. In fact computer saves time and money which aid to generate profits to the banks. Banking would be dangerous field to work in without computers, people would go to the bank carrying large sum of money and leave the Bank on next day just to finish counting the money manually but computers have made it possible that one can simply walk to the ATM and withdraw the money without necessarily waiting in a long cue to get served by the teller, getting around clients details is far much more improved than before. The major roles of computer system in banking sector are Customer Information Products Reports and Profits Transactions a nd Goals Credit Applications Delinquency Miscellaneous Customer Information The most important component of bank is to keep its customer information safely. These information is used to stay in touch with customers and notify them of any changes in bank policy. Computer stores all the information of customer which can be used in different banking functions such as Customers account number provides bank employees the ability to access customer information efficiently (Richardson, 2013) Products The number of products and services provided or taken by a customer is also stored in computers. Bank personnel periodically offer new products and services to its customers. Without the use of computers, it would be difficult to keep track of this information (Richardson, 2013) Reports and Profits With the help of computer, banks can analyse aging reports and track the customers who have had checks returned due to nonsufficient funds. This report can be used by the sales associates to call these customers and offer them a product called overdraft protection, which prevents a customer from over drafting their account. Computers help bank personnel generate income by targeting certain customers for sales activity (Richardson, 2013). Transactions and Goals Richardson (2013) computer helps bank personnel to keep a record of all transactions for the day which can be summarized at the end of the month or year. When customers make deposits and withdrawals, cash checks, open checking accounts or apply for mortgage loans, a computer stores and track all the information. After tabulating all the information branch manager or head of bank can see if the branch hits its goals and objectives. Credit Applications A bank can use computers for new loan applications and credit card applications; ChexSystems verification; and opening new accounts such as checking, saving or certificate of deposit accounts (Richardson, 2013). Delinquency Computers can be used to track customers who are delinquent on their loan and credit card payments. Computers can generate separate reports for customers according to age and can contact the customer for resolution, which helps keep delinquency under control. Miscellaneous Computer can keep a record of all communications that a bank employee may have with a bank customer including collection activity. A bank can also use a computer to see which safety deposit boxes are available and they can keep a record of customers who have safety deposit boxes. Task 2 Discuss and compare the different types of computer systems available in the market and recommend types of computers and softwares applicable for above environment and justify your recommendation. (1.3)(D1) Business Dictionary (2013) defines computer system as interconnected computers that share a central storage system and various peripheral devices such as a printers, scanners, or routers; each can operate independently but has the ability to communicate with other external devices and computers. A computer system is contemporary usage refers to a desktop system including computer itself along with peripheral devices such as CPU, monitor, speaker, keyboard, mouse, Wi-Fi adapter, Bluetooth adapter, modem, printer, scanner etc. Computer systems can be categorized according to their processing speed and power. Computer System Microcomputer Minicomputer Mainframe Supercomputer Notebook Tablet PC Laptop Netbooks Desktop Handheld Devices Minitower Full tower Fig 2.1 Types of computer system on the basis of speed and power Computer system also can be categorised according to work it has to perform. Computer System Entry Level Business Class Gaming System Workstations and servers Fig 2.2: Types of computer system on the basis of work. 2.1 Types of computer system on the basis of speed and power Computers can be classified based on their principles of operation or on their configuration. Configuration means their size, speed of doing computation and storage capacity (Computer Basics for beginners, 2013). On the basis of configuration computer can be classified as follows: 2.1.1 Microcomputer According to Wong (n.d.) a microcomputer is a computer that can perform all of its input, process, output and storage activities by itself. These are commonly called as personal computers. Microcomputer can be further divided into different types based on the size of CPU and major and minor components. Notebook A notebook computer is a battery or AC powered personal computer generally smaller than a briefcase that can be easily transported and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as on airplanes, in libraries, temporary offices, and at meetings (Rouse, 2007). Notebook computer is a small mobile computer, which usually weighs 2-18 pounds depending on size, materials used to make it. Laptop A laptop computer is a battery or AC powered personal computer generally smaller than a briefcase that can easily be transported and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as airplanes, in libraries etc (Rouse, 2007). It typically weighs less than 5 pounds and is 3 inch or less in thickness. It is more expensive than desktop computers and has same capabilities as of desktops. Desktop Desktop computers are the most popular computer systems because these are easy to use and more affordable. These are also known as personal computers or PC. This computer can be placed on flat smooth table for convenience and comfort when in use (Rastogi, 2009). Fig 2.2: Commodore Amiga 1000 desktop. (Obsolete technology website, 2012) Minitower These are recent modification on the system unit whereby the system unit is made to stand erect on its own and placed beside the monitor unlike desktop whicl lies flan on tables and monitors placed on it. Fig 2.3: HP Pavilion XT978 mini-tower computer( Sushi, 2013) Full tower These computers are closely related to the mini tower except that they are a bit higher and wider in physical size than the mini tower. Fig 2.4: Full tower PC (BuildIT, 2010) 2.1.2 Minicomputer Mini computers are lower to mainframe computers in terms of speed and storage capacity. They are also less expensive than mainframe computers. Typically minicomputers have been stand-alone computers sold to small and mid-size businesses for general business application and to large enterprises for department-level operations (Rouse, 2005). It is further subdivided into: Table PC A tablet allows users to compute without the added bulk of a keyboard and mouse. These are similar to PDAs and have touch screens but they are larger and contain more operating power and storage (Ilyas, 2013). It generally has pen like stylus and accept handwritten input directly on the screen. They have keyboard on the screen through which input can be provided. Netbooks Netbooks are then newest form of minicomputer. They run on OS and can perform all tasks that a laptop computer perform. Most of the netbooks lacks optical drive, Bluetooth, PC cards however external optical derive can be connected via the USB port (Ilyas, 2013). Handheld devices These are also known as Personal digital assistants (PDAs), which are small enough to fit comfortably in the users hand or pocket. They can easily communicate with other computers including desktop, by cables and wireless technology (Ilyas, 2013). 2.1.3 Mainframe computer Mainframe computer can process data at very high speeds i.e. hundreds of million instructions per second and they are also quite expensive (Computer basics for beginners, 2009). These are larger than micro and minicomputer in term of size and faster in term of data processing speed. It uses its power to execute many programs concurrently and in some ways they are more powerful than super computer because of they support simultaneous programs (Gandon, n.d.) 2.1.4 Super computer Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. These are very expensive and most power computer and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. It channels all its power to execute few programs as fast as possible (Gandon, n.d.). It can process billions of instructions per second and are used where intensive numerical computations such as stock analysis, weather forecasting are to be done. 2.2 Types of computer system on the basis of work With the rise in computer technology, computer is being used in different purpose nowadays. On the basis of work or task that computer should perform or assigned to do computer system extremely vary. A simple desktop computer system may not efficient for gaming purpose or vice versa. On the basis of work computer can be classified into. 2.2.1 Entry Level computer Entry level computer system is the most common systems for home and general use. This system is powerful enough to perform basic task like to run office package, simple photo edition or watching movies or surfing Internet (White, 2005). System Requirement for Entry Level Computer System Computer Processor Intel Pentium IV or Celeron running at 2GHz or better, or AMD Athlon, Duron or Semphon running at 1.5 GHz or better. System Memory (RAM) 256 MB of DDR RAM or better. Hard Disk Storage 40 GB or higher. Optical Storage. CDRW/DVDRW Monitor CRT USB Ports 2.0 standard at least 4 ports. Video At least 32 Mb-often uses system memory Audio Should be included along with speakers Network Adapter Should be included (for Internet) Table 2.1: System Requirement for entry level computer system. (White, 2005) 2.2.2 Business class computer Business class computer system is common in business such as Departmental Store, Banking Sector and Governmental Organizations etc. It is slightly more powerful than Entry level computer system because of its higher hardware configurations. System Requirement for Business class Computer System Computer Processor Intel Pentium IV or Celeron running at 2GHz or better, or AMD Athlon, Duron or Semphon running at 1.5 GHz or better. System Memory (RAM) 512 MB of error correcting code (ECC) DDR RAM or better. Hard Disk Storage 40 Gb or higher. Optical Storage. CDRW/DVDRW Monitor CRT USB Ports 2.0 standard at least 4 ports. Video At least 32 Mb-often uses system memory Audio Should be included along with speakers Network Adapter Should be included (for Internet) Table 2.1: System Requirement for Business class computer system (White, 2005) 2.2.3 Gaming computer Unlike Entry level computer system and Business class computer system; these are specially built for Gaming purpose. These computer system are highly hardware configured to match any gaming software requirements like NFS, Delta Force, Dota, CS(Counter Strike) etc. System Requirement for Gaming Computer System Computer Processor Intel Pentium IV or Celeron running at 3GHz or better, or AMD Athlon, Duron or Semphon running at 2.2 GHz or better. System Memory (RAM) 2GB of DDR RAM or better. Hard Disk Storage 520 Gb or higher. Optical Storage. CDRW/DVDRW Monitor 17 incd LCD USB Ports 2.0 standard at least 4 ports. Video At least 128 MB DDR RAM video adapter with Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) and heat sink Audio 5.1 Dolby Network Adapter Should be included (for Internet) Table 2.3: System Requirement for Gaming Computer System (White, 2005) 2.2.4 Workstation and Server. Workstation and servers are specially designed to store important data and information at single computer so that every concerned people can access them when needed. The number of clients that access Server or Workstation at a time depends upon the purpose it is kept for. For e.g. a multinational company like Nokia may have higher Workstation hardware configuration than that of local banking system. System Requirement for Workstations and servers Computer System Computer Processor Intel Pentium 4, Intel Xenon, AMD64, AMD64FX, AMD Opteron. System may support multiple processors System Memory (RAM) 256 MB to 8 GB of DDR RAM or better. Hard Disk Storage 1TB Optical Storage. Task Specific Monitor 17 inch CRT USB Ports 2.0 standard at least 6 ports. Video Task specific Audio Task specific Network Adapter High end Network Adapter Table 2.4: System requirement for Workstations and servers. (White, 2005) 2.3 Software Computer Hope (2013) defines software as a collection of instructions that enables a user to interact with the computer or have the computer perform specific tasks for them. Software is non-tangible part of computer which is set of collection of codes and instructions to be executed according to the user choice to communicate with computer and perform users desired task when necessary. Software provides life to the computer without it computer would have been useless machine for us. 2.3.1 Types of Software Different types of computer software are available in the global market which is used to simplify the operations and applications of computer programs. Computer software enables the computer system to perform in accordance with the given task. Computer Software System Software Programming software Application Software Operating System Malware Adware User interface Utility Programs Drivers Fig 2.5: Types of computer software. 2.3.1.1 System Software System software is that software which gives life to the computer hardware such as operating system. These are the primary software which is to be installed before any other software could be installed. These are of following types Operating System An Operating System (OS) is a software program or set of programs that mediate access between physical devices and application programs e.g Unix, Windows XP etc. An Operating System is a computer program that manages the resources of a computer (Balton, 2013) Characteristics of OS (Hitachi ID Systems Inc, 2013): Whether multiple programs can run on it simultaneously: Multi-tasking Whether it can take advantage of multiple processors: multi-processing Whether multiple users can run programs on it simultaneously: multi-user Whether it can reliably prevent application programs from directly accessing hardware devices: protected Whether it has built-in support for graphics. Whether it has built-in support for networks. User interface (UI) User interface simply means by which user and computer system interact by use of input devices and software. UI refers to the parts of a computer and its software that user sees, hear, touch or talk to which allow user and computer to communicate with each other (IBM, 2013) Utility Programs Utility programs are those programs which carry out routine functions. Utility programs are designed to do one or perhaps two task very well and nothing else (Teach-ICT, 2013). Some of the well-known utility programs of Windows Operating system are Disk Cleanup, Disk Defragmenter, file compressor etc. Utility programs help in maintaining system in well condition. Drivers Driver software are very small programs that tells the computer how is should communicate with a connected peripheral devices. For Windows users, in most cases, drivers come with Windows or can be found by going to Windows Update in Control Panel and checking for updates (Microsoft, 2013). For e.g. user has to install printer driver software if he has to use printer for printing purpose, same is the case for scanner and in some cases even for speakers. 2.3.1.2 Programming software This is one of the most commonly known and popularly used types of computer software by programmers. These software include text editors, compilers, debuggers and interpreters; compiler translate source code written in a programming language (C, C++, C#, Java, .NET etc) into the language which a computer understands (mostly binary form), compilers generate objects which are combine and converted into executable programs through linkers, debuggers check code for bugs and debug it and finally interpreters execute programs (Oak, 2013) 2.3.1.3 Malware Malware refers to any malicious software (Spyware, Viruses, Worms, Trojan horses, scareware) and is a broader category of software that are a threat to computer security (Oak, 2013). These are self-replicating software which transfers from one computer to another without the knowledge of user or by user actions through plug and play devices (Flash drives). Malware are specially designed by hackers to get important information from victim without the knowledge of victim or just to destroy victims data. 2.3.1.4 Application software These are the most popular form of software among general users. It enables the end users to accomplish certain specific tasks (Oak, 2013). Some of the well-known application software are Microsoft office, Adobe Photoshop, MP3/video player etc. It process data for the user. Science reference (2008) defines application software as subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly to a task that the user wishes to perform. 2.3.1.5 Adware Adware is web-based computer software with the means of which advertisements are played and downloaded to a computer (Oak, 2013). This are specially designed by programmers for companies to generate revenue by extracting user information like the websites he visits frequently and the pages he likes. For e.g: Adware is more popular in YouTube videos where ads are displayed on the sides of playing video. Beside the mentioned software types, software also can be categorise according to their licensing. Types of software according to their licensing (Oak, 2013) are listed below: Custom software Off-the-shelf software Free Software Open Source software Closed Source software Proprietary Software Shareware and Retail Software Original Equipment Manufacturer Software( Albarracin, 2008) Crippleware( Albarracin, 2008) Demo Software( Albarracin, 2008) Public Domain Software( Albarracin, 2008) 2.4 Computer System for Banking Sector Bank is the financial institution which deals with money. Duhaime.org (2013) in 1992 Justice Atkin wrote The bank undertakes to receive money and to collect bills for its customers account. The proceeds so received are not to be held in trust for the customer, but the bank borrows the proceed and undertakes to repay them. The promise to repay is to repay at the branch of the bank where the account is kept, and during banking hours. It includes a promise to repay any part of the amount due against the written order of the customer addressed to the bank at the branchà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Bankers never do make a payment to a customer in respect of a current account except upon demand. Since bank deals with monetary transaction everyday customer information, flow of money, transaction information all should be updated regularly and should be secured. For this I recommend following computer system. Hardware Requirement for Banking System Computer Client Computer Computer Processor (CPU) Intel Pentium 4 running at 2 GHz or higher. System memory (RAM) 2GB of DDR RAM or higher. Hard Disk Storage 520 GB Optical Storage Task specific. Monitor 17 inch LCD or LED. USB ports 2.0 standard at least 4 ports. Audio Task specific. Network Adapter Must include with Hi-speed Internet Server Computer Computer Processor (CPU) Intel Pentium 4 Quad Duo running at least at 2 GHz or faster System memory (RAM) 8 GB of DDR RAM or higher. Hard Disk Storage 1 TB at least with 150 GB of database space. Optical Storage DVD RW Monitor Super VGA (800 x 600) or higher resolution USB prots 2.0 standard at least 6 ports. Audio Not recommended Network Adapter Must include with Hi-speed Internet Table 2.5: Hardware Requirement for Banking Client-Server Computer System Software Requirement for Banking System Client Computer Operating System Software At least Windows XP sp3 or Windows 7 or Windows Vista. Bitdefender Antivirus plus Antivirus or any other popular antivirus Application Software Microsoft Office Package 2007, Tally and other software according to task specific. Database Software Sql Server Express or Oracle Express Server Computer Operating System At least Windows Server 2003, Recommended Windows Server 2008 or windows server later version or Linux Server OS Database software Sql Server Express or Oracle Express Table 2.6: Software Requirement for Banking Client-Server Computer System 2.4.1 Client A client is a piece of computer hardware or software that accesses a service mad available by a server. According to Brain (2011) the machines that are used to connect to server (service providers) are clients. A client is a part of Client/Server Computing who sends request for some service among various service provided by server for its functioning. A client uses small portion of service provided by server. A client can insert, update, delete or search data stored in server database according to need. The client request a service to be performed, service might be to run an application, query a database, print a document, or even perform a backup or recovery procedure (Scomptec, 2005) In banking sector a client may be Cashier, Accountant, CEO, Manger, Branch Head etc. and each one of them may seek different service at the time and service is provided by server. Even though the job of these employee in bank varies with each other they all need almost same hardware and software system configuration computer for their job with some extra peripherals for some staffs. All client computer should have minimum above software and hardware configuration for fast, safe and proper banking functioning. 2.4.2 Server A server is a computer hardware system dedicated to run one or more services to serve the needs of the users of other computers on a network. In client/server model, sometimes server is also called as daemon (Rouse, 2008). Server once activated waits for client request and once request is done by client it provides services requested by client. A server might provide multiple services for same client like HTTP, FTP etc or only one service at a time like either HTTP or FTP. In banking sector a server computer might be one of the Personal computers of CEO or any other staff or bank may install one separate computer for server purpose. As number of client depends upon the size of organization the hardware requirement may vary with little exceptions. For e.g the number of client of Nabil Bank may is more less than that of client of Standard Chartered Bank so it is more likely that server of Nabil Bank is less powerful than that of Standard Chartered Bank. Server computer is installed in accordance with the number of possible clients at the time. In overall, for all bank a server computer with above hardware and software configuration is sufficient. Task 3 Draw and explain basic block diagram of computer system with its all hardware software components. (1.2)(M2)